Peter Pan Generation Is Growing Up

Paola Lagunas Spindler English 101 Essay 3 November 2 0, 2012 The Peter Pan Generation is Growing Up There are no longer any adventures in library wonderlands in literature today, kids are forced to  experience  hard reality at a much younger age. Maria Tartar author of â€Å"No More Adventures In Wonderland† asserts the evolution of children’s and young adult villains in stories. Peter Pan, the lost boy, who never grew up, is one of her examples, giving Captain Cook a childish effect, J. M.Barrie (author of Peter Pan), gives the child the security that the good guys win the battle between the silly and  playful  adventure stories. Alice in Wonderland, a book about a girl losing herself down a rabbit hole and then battling the red queen,and her card soldiers, also give this story a secure and childish effect. Tartar believes authors have helped villains evolve from whimsically devilish to brutal and dark. The children books, intended before for a fun time are no w becoming suspenseful sit down novels. According to Tartar, authors â€Å"have crossed.Creating a perverse twist on such stories as Clifford the big red dog, The Graveyard book, a picture book about a serial killer hand who holds a knife and kills his four family member is a perfect example of authors new twist on entertainment. Harry Potter, a national best seller, is about a child’s parents dying at the start of the story, the protagonist fighting death, and loosing family and friends until the end where a well planned murder with the entire character base give a grand final to this seven book series. However, Tartar gives the prize of absolute horrific monsters to Suzanne Collins, author of The Hunger Games.Collins has turned the child reading the book into the villain. Katniss Everdeen (protagonist) fights against 12-18 year old children, in a brutal battle for living. Opening her reader’s eyes into seeing children's  exposure  to books about death, and stori es about despair and devastation, Tartar declares that books are evolving to fast for the chilren of today, with this, tartar proves how the Peter Pan generation is growing up. The villains in children’s books are changing; they are evolving, becoming more complex, growing, but, the children too are getting older. Once bedtime characters, villains are now becoming nightmare enhancers.Children that at the age of 4 were reading Alice in Wonderland, Peter Pan, and Cinderella are now the 16 year old's reading Hunger Games. The stories now being published differentiate from the previous stories but the readers do too. Providing that four year old's are still reading classics such as Peter Pan; young adults expanded their interest to  good but devastating  stories. The main reason why these stories are reaching such  exposure  is due to advertisement. Althought Tartar assures the stories for children are growing up, the reader has also matured, and the aurhots have started to developed a more consuming story.Using logos, Tartar points to the  dilemma  of the ‘expanding children story’ and it serves as slate for her reader's minds. This will help her prove the evolution of the story. If any one person compares Alice in Wonderland to The Hunger Games, the evolution of the ‘narratives about loss, suffering, and redemption’ the reader will be persuaded into Tartar’s point of view. Once Tartar sets up the juxtaposition for these two movies, she is able to effectively point out the difference between the stories, however, she takes a different approach and traces the origins of the books to issues with the authors.In past times, Tartar explains, there was such a thing as â€Å"Author's Sunday afternoons†, authors enjoyed a nice picnic, took their Saint Bernard for a walk and breathed in pure air and ideas. Authors are a now more complex. J. K Rowling, author of best seller Harry Potter, writing her first book unde r candle, and coffee shop light because she had no way to pay for electricity in her apartment, she experianced poverty. Suzanne Collins, as a child had anxieties about the possibility of her father’s death as a Vietnam veteran, was able to use this to her advantage in books about death.Authors have clearly evolved with their stories, and expanded their relationship to many more readers. This new diversity  of authors is allowing them to write deeper stories with darker backgrounds and meanings for matured readers. Even though Tartar points out the complexity of the authors and stories, she fails to point out that these both lead to the maturing of the children. Capturing a balance of danger and enchantment, the stories of Peter Pan and Alice in Wonderland provide the  audience  with an idea for the possibilities of adventure quest in childhood.The traditional villains frighten the readers, but their â€Å"juvenile antics strip them from any real authority. † Boo ks such as these are written for children under the age of twelve because of the foolish way the characters portray evil. Books such as the hunger games are written for teenagers, knowing this helps the author write appropriate topics of more complex aspects. However, Tartar has a fault in her argument by comparing a bedtime story to a story such as The Hunger Games. When an author compares two stories, one being The Hunger Games and one being Alice in wonderland, the author has one point; there is a difference.There is of course a difference, an evil wich who only dresses in red and black and hearts is no comparison to a child aspiring to manage the kiling of 23 children in order to obtain glory. Almost as different as the villains are, so are the protagonist, a young girl falling into a rabit hole to apear in a world in which she deals with silly magic tricks, is definetly not the same as a young girl coming from poverty going into an arena to try to survive natural disasters, and run away from 23 people who are out to kill her.This is where the fault in Tartars argument it, she manages to point the difference, but fails to admit that 4 year olds are not reading The Hunger Games, just like 16 year olds are not reading Alice in Wonderland. Part of why the authors are crossing over into more evolved stories is because the children’s and young adult category dominate the Best sellers charts. These devastating stories about depresion, war and death are being asked for not just by children, but adults too are picking up the copies. Helping a story achieve better  success  in the charts, the books attract a broader audience.The reason why Suzanne Collins and J. K Rowling talk so freely about death compared to J. M. Barrie is because these books are directed towards different audiences. Audiences  that  clearly  ask for this type of story, if  these  stories weren't being  successful  with all ages, they would not have been so  successful ly  sold after being  published. These books are helping a the young adult genre, they are a perfect conection of safe and suspense, they connect the topics for childre and adults. It is important to realize that they are different books, by different authors, that are intended for different audiences.Today's  authors did not think about targeting the same audience that Peter Pan was written for because it is absurd to believe that these books are intended for the same age, but they are intended however, the same reader. The reader of Peter pan, is now the reader of The Hunger games because the 10 years difference between the publishing of the two is also a 10 year difference in the reader. This time period of difference allows the authors to publish books about death,  depression  and horrible traumas because it is becoming more socially acceptable by matured readers.

A Reflective Writing

Student life is one of the most beautiful experiences ever.   Many things not learned in the home, in the workplace and within the vicinity are all enjoyed and encountered in school.One thing is worth mentioning, I could not have appreciated the beauty and exquisiteness of life as a student without the tedious requirements, blunders in the course of the performance of all those required of us and achievements at the end of the day.   Here are some worth-mentioning experiences and are worth-sharing.Practicum IV was very challenging.   I had it with College Champigne.   Expectations I had with the school and with the students were high.   I had to prepare as much as I could to meet the standards.   The students were in their high school, advanced grade 2 level.At the beginning of my teaching experience, I made sure to encourage the use of plain English as a mode of communication, either with me or with their classmates.   I introduced L2 standard of teaching thinking that all students having reached such level are capable of performing in that level.To my despair, I noticed that immediately utilizing L2 standard poses difficulty in the students.   Evaluation conducted yielded low result in the students’ performance. With this observation, I had to adjust my manner of teaching.Some performed low, so I had to get back to L1 to be able to cope with the needs and the capability of the students.   In responding to this problem, I also talked with the students personally.   I had to know their individual difficulties so I may be able to apply the best method suitable for all of them, without disregarding some students behind. This, for me, is the essence of a teacher as a critic and interpreter of knowledgeNevertheless, constant communication is English had been the policy.   Consistency and insistent use of the language, I believe, etched in the minds of the students the value of learning English and the use of it in day to day life.   I made sure to be a model in the use of the language myself; otherwise, the student would not have the encouragement to use the same.I designed strategies suitable to all 38 students.   First thing to note is that as a teacher, I should have a positive mind in all the undertakings.   In some activities, I make sure that both oral and written practices are applied.   In the grammar portion, I asked the students to read a fairy tale, for example.   The story is read orally, the students also had some group work wherein they are able to share their opinions and thoughts on the story.After the oral activity is the written one. In the discussion on verb tenses for instance, the students are asked to fill out the blanks of the appropriate verb tense.   They also had home works to work on.   With the aid of fairy tales also, the students are able to make plot diagrams to assist them in their group discussion.   Students who chose the same fairy tale are grouped together.Moreov er, the students are asked to make body biography of the characters of the story assigned.   This enables them to relate the story to the class the next day.   This also enables them relive the story during the course of the discussion.   Each group is to make a body biography and relate the same to the class.   They also had jigsaw reading and the reader’s theater.   The latter made use of a video where they had to make the editing themselves.All these involve the participation of everyone, enhancing the confidence of the students as they work with their peers.

Marketing - Second Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing - Second Assignment - Essay Example l services Employment in wholesale & retail trade Toledo 47% 31% 46% 44% Cleveland 22% 27% 16% 27% Fort Wayne 16% 11% 19% 5% In the first part of the assignment, I have observed that cities have higher numbers of employment opportunities compared to the suburbs. The number of employment opportunities is progressive relative to the distance of a town from the city center. Cities have the highest numbers of employment followed by close surrounding areas with distant areas recording the lowest numbers of employment. ... The high numbers of employment opportunities are as a result of the government and private companies preferring establishing their businesses in areas where there is plenty supply of labor. On the other hand, businesses may be established in suburbs because of the low cost of land relative to the city center where land ownership is very competitive and very expensive. In the second part of the assignment, the newspaper article reports of a situation whereby UBS is making plans to relocate to Manhattan where it was originally located in the early 1990s. Business owners and employees of the firm are concerned about the firm relocating from Stamford where it is considered to have the largest number of employees. Business owners are worried because the relocation of UBS could mean loss of business. Most of the businesses rely heavily on the presence of the company in the area. On the other hand, employees are worried because the relocation of UBS to New York means that they would be payi ng more for transport to their place of work. However, UBS had made the decision to move to Manhattan because the city had a lot of young talent that could work for the organization. This would see UBS employees moving to the city to secure employment. The observations made are consistent with the Alonso model to the extent that majority of job seekers prefer working in the city as opposed to suburbs. Employers on the other hand consider locating their business in the city because they expect to maximize profits despite incurring high costs of rent. Cities rank higher in the number of employment opportunities than suburbs and most of the jobseekers prefer living in the

Discuss the ways in which globalisation has changed work patterns and Essay

Discuss the ways in which globalisation has changed work patterns and labour structures - Essay Example The recent discussions on globalization involve the arguments on its existence, the importance given to it today as compared to the past, the change in the concept of nation and citizenship because of globalization, the importance of globalization as against regionalism and localism. In addition a crucial debate is continuously rising on weighing the positive and negative impacts of globalization and exploring the people who are directly or indirectly influenced by the changes brought in by this concept. Globalization is a comprehensive and broad topic and covers a huge list of important issues including economic, social, political, cultural, religious and moral etc. The definition of globalization is also defined in the light of all these perspectives. As it is defined by James Rosenau, a political scientist, as "a label that is presently in vogue to account for peoples, activities, norms, ideas, goods, services, and currencies that are decreasingly confined to a particular geograph ic space and its local and established practices" (1997, p.360). Most of the researchers bordered their research on the economic impacts of globalization. ... The microeconomic effects refer to the technological advancements and the impact at individual firm levels, whereas, the macroeconomic effects involve the collaborative analysis of markets for business purposes (Oman, 1994). Pros and Cons of Globalization All countries experience some positive and some negative influences of more and more integration in the world economy. Pros of Globalization The list of positive aspects of globalization includes the excess availability of external finance. This excess amount of finance is helpful especially for the developing countries. The excess availability of excess finance from external sources is evidenced by the IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook and World Bank, Global Development Finance, 1999. For instance the increase in capital flows is observed in the East Asia Pacific from 15.8 in 1980 to 36.3 in 1997. Similarly, an increasing trend of capital flows has been observed in Eastern Europe and Latin America. The percentages of this increase varied from region to region. The availability of external finance helped in releasing the constraints on foreign exchange that reduced and somehow suppressed growth and development in 1980s. The availability of foreign direct investments that were included in the new funds cannot be ignored. The concept of foreign direct investments is encouraged by the governments of the developing states. Foreign Direct Investments are encouraged because they improve the capital accumulation process and help the country develop with a faster pace in the present and thereby, affirm its success and prosperity on economic grounds in the upcoming years. Globalization does not only provide direct advantages to the countries influenced by it but

Pricing Strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pricing Strategy - Case Study Example Pricing must show a positive correlation with other elements of the mix so as to achieve the objectives of a firm. In addition, pricing is complex as it must imitate the demand and supply relationship of the product. Firms need to charge a fair price, since charging too high for the product or too low might lead to reduction in sales for the organization thus reducing the profitability of the organization. Therefore, there is a need for the hotel to consider the profit factors in determining the price of the product. In this case, the profit factors includes; the objectives of the company, variable and fixed cost associated with the product, the targeted market and willingness and ability to pay, the competition environment prevailing in the industry and planned positioning strategies (Smith and Smith 271). In the consideration, of the above classification, the place or rather the location of the hotel is vital for pricing. Avira hotel is strategically situated, where in the neighbor hood there various tourist attraction site thus offering the possibility a wider a market. Also, the hotel operates from an area which is close to the airport, bank and various garden as well as other recreational areas. This implies that the many of the customers are individuals who have a higher willingness ability to pay; therefore, the price must reflect this consideration (Smith and Smith 282). The strategic positioning in an area where there demand of the hotels implies the price charged by the hotel must reflect the supply constrain, since there are only five-star hotels in the area, while the number of the customer is higher. This implies that demand is considerably high since it is only in the month may that the hotels products experienced an average of about 50% occupancy this justifies the move by the hotel review it price so as to reflect this relationship (Smith and Smith 289). Another pricing strategy showcased in this case is the level of competition in the hotel indu stry in the region. There are only five-star hotels serving a wide, thus, the completion between the hotels is not intense as demand is in excess of supply. This implies that, for a hotel to be more competitive than the other hotel so that it can control the large proportion market, therefore, they must consider the pricing strategy so as to maximize on large production thus benefiting from the economies of scale. In respect to competition, the customers consider the utility they derive and compare this to the price that they pay for the product. It is evident that the price that Avari hotel is slightly higher than that of its key competitor Pearl. Usually consumers will pay higher for a commodity if they think that the commodity is superior as compared to the others. In this case, when Avira lowered its price in the month of November lower than its competitors Pearl; that is pearl charges $1065 and Avira $1000. Pearl occupancy level rises to 80% as compared to 70% Avira. This has t he implication that consumers equate the price they pay to the utility or satisfaction they derive from consuming these products. Avira also utilizes premium pricing, where it charges higher prices for its products to show the how its product is exclusive as compared to the product offered by other firms and especially competition. This case can be delineated by the ever higher price charged by Avira as compared to Pearl. In addition to this, the

Software Testing Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Software Testing - Research Proposal Example ording to David-at-el (1998), software testing is complicated and expensive and sometimes considered as a more time consuming part of overall system development life cycle. In this scenario the most of testing stages and activities are overlooked to deploy the system on time. Additionally, for cost saving and delivering system on due date system development team eliminates the system testing phase by minimizing few testing phases. However, sometime this action leads to problems in overall software working and handling for instance, the developed system has hidden bugs that appear during the system working and create problems for the system user(s). This type of problems leads toward the system failure or even working malfunction (Banks et al., 1998; Taipale & Smolander, 2006). 6 According to Mihnea & Constantinescu (2008), IT managers and professionals can have different opinions regarding a lot of software development principles, however the majority of them agree on one point that software we deliver has to be correct as well as reliable. In this scenario the successful software development groups have previously recognized that efficient testing is necessary to achieve this goal. In addition, researches have shown that most of software working and operational risks are due to some testing related problems (Mihnea & Constantinescu, 2008; Gelperin & Hetzel, 1988). In this scenario there is a vital need for the effective testing. My research is aimed at offering a group of testing techniques that will effectively manage and handle the software problems. The aim of this research is to offer a comprehensive and effective set of software testing techniques, types and execution framework. 7 Gallagher (2000) stated that testing is not quality assurance. It is examined that effectively tested software that was incompetently designed, poorly conceived as well as unconcernedly programmed will end up a well-tested, bad product. Though, software testing has long been one

Health Care Policy Issues for the Elderly in America Assignment

Health Care Policy Issues for the Elderly in America - Assignment Example The conditions include the stroke, cancer, arthritis, mental disorder, cancer, and other chronic illnesses causing limited or total disability. As people live longer, the major common chronic diseases increase causing a considerable disability and functional dependence requiring services affecting diverse sectors of the economy. The burden of chronic diseases poses a significant challenge for policymakers, providers of long-term care services including families and friends of the victims (Niles- Yokum & Wagner, 2015). Policy issues and challenges for the long-term care emerging from the demographic changes should rectify amicably by the involvement of health care providers. To make profound changes in the formal health care system, health care providers and policymakers must embrace the quality of healthcare for the older citizen. As a part of Affordable Care Act, Congress passed a new Voluntary, long-term insurance policy allowing planning by the individuals for the long-term services (Protection & Act, 2010). The formation of the Living Assistance and Supports Program enables individuals to plan correctly for long-term services as they age. CLASS allows the elderly to spend at home rather than forcing them to spend their life savings or enter the nursing homes. Even though, the initiation of the CLASS project terminates the Congress members believe the issue should be revocable. The Affordable Care Act comprises various funding programs to ensure improvement in the care of the elderly. It improves the available tools creating new options and financial incentives for states to give home and community-based services and support (Powers, 2014). It acts on the limited areas of interests, for example, the home, and community-based services state plan option. For the Qualification of the Medicaid benefits, eligible seniors must have spent most of their resources enabling Medicaid to pay for long-term health care. The seniors with both Medicaid and Medicare covers are dually eligible. Because of the varying rules of Medicaid from State to state, it is important for the low-income seniors to investigate how the state program works. There is a Partnership for Long-Term Care, which combines private long-term care insurance and Medicaid long-term care coverage to support healthcare services. Â  

Is Money Neutral Contrast the view regarding the neutrality of money Essay

Is Money Neutral Contrast the view regarding the neutrality of money between Real Business Cycle theory and New Keynesian Theor - Essay Example This is an important question to ask, as it affects the way, the government chooses to govern the economy and the ways to control it. The two schools of thought, the New Keynesian Theory and the Real Business Cycle Theory, debate the answer to this question (Mankiw, pp. 181-220, 2003). Both of these theories have a unique perspective to offer on the answer, and since each raises valid arguments, neither has yet been discredited for the other. The theory of money neutrality maintains that the effect of money does not affect real, inflation-adjusted factors like employment; real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and ‘real’ consumption (real because they have are all adjusted for inflation). This is because this theory considers the force of money as an inflationary one, with no large implications for the economy in terms of the macroeconomic factors. However, the theory does acknowledge the impact money has on nominal variables, such as price and wages, and even exchange rate o f the country’s currency (Wickens, pp. 199, 2009). These factors bound to gain influence from the money rate of interest, as they have a direct link to money and its circulation in the economy. The two schools of thought that debates on the neutrality of money have opposite views about how far-reaching the effect of money can be in an economy. The classical model states that money is neutral in both the short run as well as the long run. This means that this model considers money to be a neutral force, one that does not affect macro factors such as GDP or employment in the economy. Whereas, the Keynesian school of thought states that a force as strong as money does have its impact on the economy in the end. It believes that monetary policy does have a strong impact on the real economy, if one waits enough time before observing the changes. Each of these schools believes that this effect is visible within the short run for a short period of time, which is a factor on which the y both see eye to eye, but for different reasons. For the long term however, they both offer opposing views (Wickens, pp. 199, 2009). The classical model presents the view that monetary policy cannot affect the real economy and its macro factors, neither in the short run, nor in the long-run (Gali, pp 50-79, 2008). It states that nominal shocks, which are changes in the money supply and money demand, do not have any effect on the business cycle. This monetary policy is one of the tools that a government uses to control the economy, which it does by manipulating the money supply and circulation. According to the theory, when ‘money supply’ changes, it affects price proportionately. However, there is no effect on the real variables in the economy, such as the real interest rate or the unemployment level in the economy. As mentioned above, the classical school does also believe that the money supply affects the real factors for a short period. However, it believes that ver y soon, the price level adjusts to this change in money supply, thus making it ineffective to any real factors in the economy. This is apparent in the diagram below, which shows how the equilibrium reverts to normal after a temporary price shock (Abel and Bernanke, pp. 2005). In other words, it believes that the non-neutrality of money is short-lived, persisting over a period of insignificant length. Thus,

Physician Ratings -New York State Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Physician Ratings -New York State - Essay Example The second component arrangement is the doctor of medicine. Landing to this data will help a patient look for a doctor who is specially trained to diagnose, prescribe, treat, or operate any human condition or physical condition. Osteopathic physicians will have unlimited medicine practice here in New York and thus will need to have passed the national licensing examination sequence. Under a doctor’s profile, it will also be shown a Dr.’s survey received or not received. A Dr.’s survey not received may mean that the specific doctor has not submitted his profile yet and thus not much understood by the system (New York State Department of Health, 2012). There is also a special icon showing a doctor’s licensure. This icon is used to identify the doctors that have met the State’s standards of practicing medicine and have gone through and passed the licensing examination. The doctor will in that case receive a licensure implying that he/she is licensed by the medicine regulatory body. There is also a data column under a physician’s profile showing â€Å"none-reported† that comes throughout the physician profile. The existence of â€Å"none-reported† may mean that the physician didn’t self-write the information and that all information is applicable. The more the certifications, licensure, and compliance with the health board’s policies, the higher a physician’s rank will

Response to The Omnivore's Dilemma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Response to The Omnivore's Dilemma - Essay Example Because of these extensive choices, dilemmas are arising in the human’s minds regarding how food items are produced, whether naturally or artificially, whether unethical practices are followed, in total dilemma of what food to eat. â€Å"When you can eat just about anything nature has to offer, deciding what you should eat will inevitably stir anxiety† (Pollan 3). So, the main intent of the author, Michael Pollan is to provide the readers with an overview of the production process of various food choices, so the readers can select the apt foods, they want to consume. To learn for himself, and also to inform the readers about the production processes and thereby about food choices, Pollan follows the food chains of the three major food categories, which provide us the food– industrial food, organic food, and foraging food. That is, he examines the food chains of these three food categories from the initial till it reaches the humans stage (factory production and s upermarkets in the case of Industrial food, agricultural farms, small scale producers and vendors in the case of organic food and finally hunting expedition in case of foraging). â€Å"To this end, he embarks on four separate eating adventures, each of which starts at the very beginning — in the soil from which the raw materials of his dinners will emerge — and ends with a cooked, finished meal.† (Kamp 2006). The other main intent of Pollan is bring into focus how corn plant has came to dominate majority of the food choices in the American diet, and so allocates sizable portion of the book (close to 7 chapters) discussing about it. Although, corn is a benign plant, which is grown in large numbers throughout America and consumed directly in minimal quantities, it is actively used in the production of various food items, food additives, preservatives, etc. That is, after corn is produced, it is milled or refined or recompounded, and then it could â€Å"become any number of things, from ethanol for the gas tank to dozens of edible, if not nutritious, products, like the thickener in a milkshake, the hydrogenated oil in margarine, the modified cornstarch,†¦the ubiquitous sweetener known as high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS).† (Kamp 2006). With such extensive ‘applications’, Corn plant production is crucial to the survival and functioning of the various food industries. Because of which, the industrial food industry is implementing various dubious and unethical production practices to produce corn in a large scale manner. With heightened production, the corn has become cheap and plentiful, with Pollan even stating that it has become a â€Å"remarkably inexpensive industrial raw material.† (Kamp 2006). As a result, Pollan argues, food is much cheaper and more plentiful than it used to be, but unfortunately the health of the humans and that of the environment has deteriorated. Pollan also had the intent to bring out th e negatives of the organic food industry as well. Although, the organic industry mainly produces environment friendly and healthy foods for the people to consume, the production process in that industry also has started bordering on commercialization. That is, producers are adopting many of the methods of the industrial fo

Definitions of Tourism Essay Example for Free

Definitions of Tourism Essay Tourism is a booming industry and a driving force in positive economical, ecological, sustainable, social and cultural developments in several countries around the globe. Its complex nature requires sophisticated management in order to reach its full potential. Most people possess an intuitive and basic understanding of tourism, which focuses on an image of people travelling for recreational purposes, however, tourism, goes far beyond this simplistic view. According to Stear (2005), the area of studying tourism has an apparent lack of substance when it comes to defining the basic terms ‘tourism’ and ‘tourist’. Although the concept of tourism itself has been around for many centuries, the academic study of tourism in the tertiary educational sector is a recent development. There is no single definition of tourism to which everyone adheres. Many definitions have been used over the years, some of which are universal and can be applied to any situation, while others fulfil a specific purpose. This essay aims to define who exactly a ‘tourist’ is and what the term ‘tourism’ means through technical and heuristic definitions from articles written by Stear (2005), Dickman (1997), and McIntosh et al (1995). Throughout the essay definitions from organisations such as the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) will also be drawn upon. The ambiguity of two seemingly simple concepts in theory – who a tourist is and what tourism entails will be discussed through a range of academic articles, which will address and highlight the strengths, weaknesses and differences between them. The foci and boundaries of each definition will be determined in order to assess their effectiveness. Whilst each definition is unique in their own right, there are also many similarities, which can be noted. Weaver (2010) states that â€Å"the definition of ‘tourism’ is dependent on the definition of the ‘tourist’ and when defining whom exactly is a ‘tourist’, individuals must simultaneously meet certain spatial, temporal and purposive criteria†, which will be discussed below. First and foremost, Stear (2005) defines tourism as â€Å"†¦Tourism is travel and temporary stay, involving at least one night away from the region of a person’s usual home that is undertaken with the major expectation of satisfying leisure needs that are perceived as being more njoyably able to be satisfied by being at places outside of, and qualitatively different to, the home region † (Stear 2005, pg. 8). Stear also has a clear definition of a tourist, which he refers to as â€Å"†¦ A tourist is a person engaging in activities directly associated with present or future travel and temporary stay that involves at least one night away from the region of their usual home that is undertaken with the major expectation of satisfying leisure needs that are perceived as being more enjoyably able to be satisfied by places outside of, and qualitatively different to, the home region. (Stear 2005, pg. 11) A clear fault of Stear’s heuristic definitions of ‘tourism’ and ‘tourist’ is the limitation or restriction of the time period of â€Å"at least one night away†, in which Stear fails to take into account the temporal element of tourism. The notion of how long, if any time at all, that must be spent away from one’s usual home is an aspect, which is not uniform amongst definitions of tourism. Another weakness of Stear’s definitions is the l imitation of â€Å"the region of a person’s usual home†, which implies that physically moving away from your home would make you a tourist. According to the UNWTO (cited in Weaver, 2010), for an individual to qualify as a tourist â€Å"travel must occur beyond the individual’s ‘usual environment’†. The spatial boundary of tourism as discussed by Weaver (2010) is unclear in this instance as an individual who lives in Sydney but stays in Canberra during the week for work would then be considered a tourist under this definition. Whilst Stear’s (2005) definition states a minimum stay requirement to be considered a tourist, it does not state a maximum timeframe, unlike that of other definitions, which clearly state a maximum period of time before someone loses the title of ‘tourist’. The UNWTO (1995) provides a more technical definition and defines tourism as an individual â€Å"travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. † This definition is broader in scope compared to Stear’s (2005), which specifies that an individual who travels is only a tourist when their travel is â€Å"undertaken with the major expectation of satisfying leisure needs. † The UNWTO definition (cited in Weaver, 2010) is complemented by Dickman’s (1997, pg. 7) who identifies a tourist as â€Å"†¦a visitor who travels to a place utside his/her usual environment for at least one night but no more than six months (domestic) or one year (international) and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited† and tourism as â€Å"†¦a non-essential activity, or one that is predominantly rela ted to leisure activities† (Dickman, 1997 pg. 7). Compared to Stear’s (2005) definition of tourism, Dickman’s (1997) heuristic definition is very brief and extremely vague as spatial relevance and time period are both not addressed. Furthermore, Dickman’s (1997) definition is limited as it only refers to the activity side of tourism whereas Leiper (2004) discusses a basic tourism system involving the tourist, the generating region, the transit route, the destination and the movement in between. Despite this limitation, a major strength of Dickman’s (1997) definition is that it defines and takes into consideration the differences between domestic and international tourists. This comparison has also been addressed by Weaver (2010) who declares that a domestic tourist is one that travels within their own country of residence, whilst an international tourist travels outside their usual country of residence. The third and final authors McIntosh et al. (1995) describes tourism as â€Å"†¦the entire world industry of travel, hotels, transportations, and all other components, including promotion, that serves the needs and wants of travellers. Tourism today has been given new meaning and is primary a term of economics referring to the industry†. On the other hand, ‘tourist’ is defined as â€Å"†¦a person who travels from place to place for non work reasons by U. N. definition, a tourist is someone who stays for more than one night and less than a year. Business and convention travel is included. This thinking is dominated by balance-of-trade concepts. Military personnel, diplomats, immigrants and resident students are not tourists† (McIntosh et al. , 1995). The heuristic definition above of ‘tourism’ incorporates the industry as a whole, which is a major strength in comparison to the other definitions, hich only take into account the physical act of travelling. The tourism industry is not identifiable as a standard industry but is rather an amalgamation of parts of other conventional industries such as retail, hospitality, accommodation, entertainment and transport (Weaver, 2010). The incorporation of ‘tourism’ as an industry takes on a different approach to defining tourism and makes finding a clarified and universal meaning for ‘tourism’ and ‘tourist’ even more complicated. McIntosh et al. 1995) refer to the tourist in a very specific manner including different types of tourists such as business tourists, which is a strong point, as a tourist can’t be just defined in one aspect. According to Weaver (2010), â€Å"a basic tourist criterion concerns travel purpose which is dominated by three major categories – leisure and recreation, visiting friends and relative and business. † Compared to Stear (2005) and Dickman’s (1997) narrow definitions, McIntosh et al. (1995) have a much broader, flexible view on defining tourism and the tourist. In both definitions of ‘tourist’ Dickman (1997) and McIntosh et al. 1995) describe an individual moving out of their ‘usual environment’, which is considered a key element in the definition. Weaver (2010) supports this definition in his discussion of fulfilling the spatial component in order to be considered a tourist. Whilst this is considered a highly subjective concept, many tourism bodies specify minimum distance thresholds, which â€Å"serve the useful purpose of [differentiating] those who bring outside revenue into the local area from those who circulate revenue internallyâ €  (Weaver, 2010, pg. 22-23). When reviewing the definition by McIntosh et al. 1995), a key downfall is the reference to ‘resident students’ not being considered tourists, which can be questioned. An international student may wish to travel overseas first to experience the culture of the country they plan on studying in, however under this definition, even if they wish to take part in and visit tourist attractions which are recreational and leisure based they aren’t considered tourists. Most people do not intuitively associate study or formal education with tourism however it is considered a qualifying criterion by the UNWTO. In Australia alone, in 2007-08 international students accounted for around 7% of all inbound arrivals (Weaver, 2010, pg. 29). In conclusion, the complicated task of defining two simple terms ‘tourism’ and ‘tourist’ has been made somewhat clearer through the definitions provided by Stear (2005), Dickman (1997) and McIntosh et al. (1995). Whilst all three authors have different perspectives on how to define these terms, they also have a few aspects that seem to cross over. Considering all the definitions by the three authors Stear (2005), Dickman (1997) and McIntosh et al. 1995) it is hard to argue which definition is more just and accurate than the other as they all have their strengths and weaknesses. From the research conducted, Stear’s (2005) definition of a ‘tourist’ is the most flexible and relevant in the context of today’s society however; Dickman’s (1997) definition of ‘tourism’ is most accurate as it incorporates the entire tourism industry and not just the physical act of traveling. Ultimately, ‘tourist’ and ‘tourism’ are indefinable as we all have our own personal views and perspectives on which definitions fit the context of the situation.

Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning

Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background All through the years, there has been an increasing emphasis on teaching English as an instrument for communication, and technology has played a critical function in facilitating authentic communication. The movement of language teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of language systems to the use and communicative value of the spoken language in the everyday setting (Vanderplank, 1993). In a sense, the efficacy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional channel of media to send out a message, to significantly improve communication and comprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia technology (like TV, computers, networks, emails video cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready-only memories (CD-ROMs) and interactive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the target language into the language classroom. In this meticulous setting, learners slowly expand their language acquisition by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target language. According to one of the most outstanding theories of second language acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large amount of language unconsciously through ample comprehensible input. The Input Hypothesis, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target language in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible input by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In other words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible input is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers struggle to employ a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition. Many researchers have presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, video, and TV) have helpful effects on language learning due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995; Egbert Jessup, 1996; Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language performance in reading, listening comprehension and vocabulary recognition. One survey study by the American Association of School Administrators showed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors believe that technology has enhanced students learning considerably. Similarly, many English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that educational technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking. Similarly, television programs and videos have created a place in the communication of information and are powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate not only visually through pictures but also aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The subtitle, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the dialogue or narration of the programs audio track, expanding comprehension and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant general movement indicates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more systematically processed than if either dialogue or subtitles are presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the usefulness of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (1961a) findings support the between-channel redun dancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), comprehension will be superior than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as identical information from the visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this: information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through different sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More explicitly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the incoming information. However, a contrasting theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that human can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel presentation of information is used in the teaching-learning process. Along with this contentious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel presentation, an awareness of and interest in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials. Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual context, such as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form are more probable to activate both coding systems in the processing than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input foundations get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the content, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition , a lot of teachers consider subtitles shed some new light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its potential in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996; Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984; Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993; Parks, 1994; Vanderplank, 1993). 1.1.1 Subtitle Subtitles, which are English written subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this study, are the written version of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the bottom of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms: the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are not automatically visible to the viewer; however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By contrast, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive function of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not avail able in some areas of the world, subtitling technology is broadly accessible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television Decoder Circuitry Act requiring that all new televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With reference to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of people in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such as Taiwan and Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing. Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are helpful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improvement of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively. For the benefits of the multimedia approach, ESL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The focus on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and promising approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989; Borras Lafayette, 1994; Ellsworth, 1992; Garza, 1991; Goldman, 1996; Goldman Goldman, 1988; Markham, 1989; Nugent, 1983; Parlato, 1985; Price, 1983; Vanderplank, 1991; Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994; Wilson Koskinen, 1986). Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrating the benefits of the use of subtitles for the hearing-impaired, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. Thus, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements. This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research focuses on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learning English as a foreign language in Iran. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Many people in Iran have problems when it comes to communicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills; therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. . Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for English in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are going to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning movie solution. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran [English as a foreign language (EFL)]. In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a particular video episode, as evaluated by a Content Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition. 1.4 Significance of the Study Teachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehension, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the body of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching 1.5 Hypotheses This study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency. Ho 1: There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. Ho 2: There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question 1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly? 2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly? 3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly? 1.7 Definition of the Terms The definitions are given here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study. 1.7.1 Subtitle Subtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this research and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the identical language shown at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.2 Closed Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding device installed in the television set or a special decoder machine. 1.7.3 Open Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST) An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST includes the two subtests: vocabulary and content comprehension. 1.7.5 Content Vocabulary The vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects 1.7.6 Content Comprehension Content comprehension that focuses mainly on the whole story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video 1.8 Limitation of the Study The researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL learners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants. 1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the foundation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potential misunderstanding. Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subtitles. It starts with a theoretical review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the capacity theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, normal reading ability, and language learners is offered. Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses testing formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the data collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied. In Chapter IV, the analyses are performed to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantitative results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results. The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesize the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented. CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing Theories In many communities around the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personal, socio-cultural, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Historical documents indicate that individuals and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language contact, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout history. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results; thus there is a requirement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure. Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is said to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988; Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987; Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984; Asher, 1980; Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985; Belloni Jongsma, 1978; Bernstein, 1955; Entin Klare, 1985; Osako Anders, 1983; Renninger, 1988; Stevens, 1982). However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towards a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why exciting tools such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, composed of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become involved in reading the specific subject matter. Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free recall and extensive interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and Deci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater conceptual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students. The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models: integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be identified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to procure a better future through social mobility; in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is often considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989). In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this fact in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly indicated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, Rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with voice-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is accompanied by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the possibility of vocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987 ) to address this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompanied by the script. Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning: the need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language [cultural openness], the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible [social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers]. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forces—integrativeness minus fear of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted member of the tar get group; fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the countries like Iran where people are brightly proud of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms â€Å"acculturation,† that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. Under this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation [social integration psychological openness] namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups. There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the dominant group like it seems to have the same role with English language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the middle east languages. However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schema theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens. 2.2 Schema Theory According to Bartlett (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time; adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory; details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also play a facilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content; in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without serious obstacles (Anderson, 1987; Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researche rs usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995; Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996; Adams Collins, 1977; Anderson Gipe, 1983; Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977; Baldwin et al., 1985; Carrell Eisterhold, 1983; Lipson, 1983; Paul, 1959; Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982; Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979; Yousef, 1968; Zegarra Zinger, 1981). However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majority. Second language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). 2.3 The Single Channel Learning Theory The single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the central nervous system (Trave Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background All through the years, there has been an increasing emphasis on teaching English as an instrument for communication, and technology has played a critical function in facilitating authentic communication. The movement of language teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of language systems to the use and communicative value of the spoken language in the everyday setting (Vanderplank, 1993). In a sense, the efficacy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional channel of media to send out a message, to significantly improve communication and comprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia technology (like TV, computers, networks, emails video cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready-only memories (CD-ROMs) and interactive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the target language into the language classroom. In this meticulous setting, learners slowly expand their language acquisition by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target language. According to one of the most outstanding theories of second language acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large amount of language unconsciously through ample comprehensible input. The Input Hypothesis, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target language in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible input by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In other words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible input is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers struggle to employ a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition. Many researchers have presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, video, and TV) have helpful effects on language learning due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995; Egbert Jessup, 1996; Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language performance in reading, listening comprehension and vocabulary recognition. One survey study by the American Association of School Administrators showed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors believe that technology has enhanced students learning considerably. Similarly, many English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that educational technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking. Similarly, television programs and videos have created a place in the communication of information and are powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate not only visually through pictures but also aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The subtitle, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the dialogue or narration of the programs audio track, expanding comprehension and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant general movement indicates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more systematically processed than if either dialogue or subtitles are presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the usefulness of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (1961a) findings support the between-channel redun dancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), comprehension will be superior than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as identical information from the visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this: information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through different sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More explicitly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the incoming information. However, a contrasting theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that human can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel presentation of information is used in the teaching-learning process. Along with this contentious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel presentation, an awareness of and interest in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials. Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual context, such as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form are more probable to activate both coding systems in the processing than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input foundations get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the content, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition , a lot of teachers consider subtitles shed some new light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its potential in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996; Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984; Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993; Parks, 1994; Vanderplank, 1993). 1.1.1 Subtitle Subtitles, which are English written subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this study, are the written version of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the bottom of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms: the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are not automatically visible to the viewer; however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By contrast, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive function of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not avail able in some areas of the world, subtitling technology is broadly accessible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television Decoder Circuitry Act requiring that all new televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With reference to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of people in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such as Taiwan and Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing. Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are helpful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improvement of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively. For the benefits of the multimedia approach, ESL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The focus on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and promising approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989; Borras Lafayette, 1994; Ellsworth, 1992; Garza, 1991; Goldman, 1996; Goldman Goldman, 1988; Markham, 1989; Nugent, 1983; Parlato, 1985; Price, 1983; Vanderplank, 1991; Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994; Wilson Koskinen, 1986). Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrating the benefits of the use of subtitles for the hearing-impaired, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. Thus, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements. This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research focuses on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learning English as a foreign language in Iran. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Many people in Iran have problems when it comes to communicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills; therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. . Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for English in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are going to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning movie solution. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran [English as a foreign language (EFL)]. In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a particular video episode, as evaluated by a Content Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition. 1.4 Significance of the Study Teachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehension, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the body of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching 1.5 Hypotheses This study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency. Ho 1: There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. Ho 2: There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question 1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly? 2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly? 3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly? 1.7 Definition of the Terms The definitions are given here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study. 1.7.1 Subtitle Subtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this research and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the identical language shown at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.2 Closed Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding device installed in the television set or a special decoder machine. 1.7.3 Open Subtitle A subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen. 1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST) An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST includes the two subtests: vocabulary and content comprehension. 1.7.5 Content Vocabulary The vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects 1.7.6 Content Comprehension Content comprehension that focuses mainly on the whole story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video 1.8 Limitation of the Study The researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL learners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants. 1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the foundation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potential misunderstanding. Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subtitles. It starts with a theoretical review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the capacity theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, normal reading ability, and language learners is offered. Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses testing formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the data collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied. In Chapter IV, the analyses are performed to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantitative results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results. The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesize the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented. CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing Theories In many communities around the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personal, socio-cultural, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Historical documents indicate that individuals and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language contact, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout history. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results; thus there is a requirement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure. Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is said to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988; Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987; Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984; Asher, 1980; Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985; Belloni Jongsma, 1978; Bernstein, 1955; Entin Klare, 1985; Osako Anders, 1983; Renninger, 1988; Stevens, 1982). However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towards a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why exciting tools such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, composed of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become involved in reading the specific subject matter. Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free recall and extensive interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and Deci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater conceptual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students. The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used. Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models: integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be identified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to procure a better future through social mobility; in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is often considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989). In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this fact in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly indicated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, Rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with voice-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is accompanied by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the possibility of vocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987 ) to address this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompanied by the script. Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning: the need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language [cultural openness], the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible [social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers]. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forces—integrativeness minus fear of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted member of the tar get group; fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the countries like Iran where people are brightly proud of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms â€Å"acculturation,† that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. Under this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation [social integration psychological openness] namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups. There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the dominant group like it seems to have the same role with English language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the middle east languages. However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schema theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens. 2.2 Schema Theory According to Bartlett (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time; adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory; details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also play a facilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content; in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without serious obstacles (Anderson, 1987; Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researche rs usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995; Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996; Adams Collins, 1977; Anderson Gipe, 1983; Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977; Baldwin et al., 1985; Carrell Eisterhold, 1983; Lipson, 1983; Paul, 1959; Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982; Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979; Yousef, 1968; Zegarra Zinger, 1981). However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majority. Second language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). 2.3 The Single Channel Learning Theory The single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the central nervous system (Trave